Biogas from Waste and Renewable Resources: An Introduction, 2nd, Revised and Expanded Edition

1. Energy Supply – Today and in the Future
   
   1.1 Primary Energy Sources.
   1.2 Secondary Energy Sources.
   1.3 End-Point Energy Sources.
   1.4 Effective Energy.
   
   
2. Energy Supply in the Future – Scenarios.
   
   
3. Potential for Transforming Biomass into End-Point Energy Sources.
   
   3.1 Amount of Available Area
   3.2 Theoretical Potential.
   3.3 Technical Potential.
   3.4 Economic Potential.
   3.5 Realizable Potential.
   
   
4. History and Status to Date in Europe.
   
   4.1 First Attempts at Using Biogas.
   4.2 Second Attempts at Using Biogas.
   4.3 Third Attempts at Applying Biogas
   4.4 Status to Date and Perspective in Europe.
   
   
5. History and Status to Date Worldwide.
   
   5.1 History and Status to Date in China
   5.2 History and Status to Date in India.
   5.3 Status to Date in America
   5.4 Status to Date in the CIS States
   
   
6. General Aspects of the Recovery of Biomass in the Future.
   
   

7. Substrate
   
   7.1 Agricultural Products
   7.2 Biowaste from Collections of Residual Waste and Domestic Waste Like Commercial Waste
   7.3 Landfill for Residual Waste.
   7.4 Sewage Sludge and Co-substrate.
   7.5 Industrial Waste Water.
   7.6 Waste Grease or Fat.
   7.7 Cultivation of Algae.
   7.8 Plankton.
   7.9 Sediments in the Sea.
   7.10 Wood, Straw.
   
   
8. Biogas.
   
   8.1 Biogas Compared with Other Methane-Containing Gases.
   8.2 Detailed Overview of Biogas Components.
   
   

9. Biochemistry
   
   
10. Bioreactions
    
    10.1 Hydrolysis.
    10.2 Acidogenic Phase
    10.3 Acetogenic Phase.
    10.4 Methanogenic Phase.
    
    
11. Process Parameters
    
    11.1 Parameter: Hydrogen Partial Pressure.
    11.2 Parameter: Concentration of the Microorganisms (Ensilage, Recirculation of Biomass).
    11.3 Parameter: Type of Substrate.
    11.4 Parameter: Specific Surface Area of Material.
    11.5 Parameter: Disintegration.
    11.6 Parameter: Cultivation, Mixing, and Volume Load.
    11.7 Parameter: Light.
    11.8 Parameter: Temperature.
    11.9 Parameter: pH.
    11.10 Parameter: Redox Potential.
    11.11 Parameter: Nutrients (C : N : P Ratio)
    11.12 Parameter: Precipitants (Calcium Carbonate, Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate, Apatite).
    11.13 Parameter: Biogas Removal.
    11.14 Parameter: Inhibitors.
    11.15 Parameter: Degree of Decomposition
    11.16 Parameter: Foaming and Scum Formation.

12. Methanogenic Ecosystems
    
    12.1 Ecosystems in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Ruminants.
    12.2 Ecosystems in the Gastrointestinal System of Herbivores.
    12.3 Ecosystems in the Intestine of Termites of Termites.
    12.4 Ecosystem in the Soil of a Paddy Field.
    12.5 Ecosystems in a Biogas Reactor.
    
    
13. Microorganisms in Methanation
    
    13.1 Protists.
    13.2 Fungi.
    13.3 Bacteriophages.
    13.4 Bacteria and Archaea.
    
    

14. Guidlines and Regulations
    
    14.1 Regulations Relating to the Construction of Plants.
    14.2 Biomass and Residue.
    14.3 Feeding Biogas to the Gas Network.
    14.4 Risk of Explosion.
    14.5 Risk of Fire.
    14.6 Harmful Exhaust Gases.
    14.7 Noise Protection.
    14.8 Prevention of Injuries.
    14.9 Protection from Water
    
    
15. The Biogas Laboratory
    
    15.1 Laboratory Digesters with Eudiometers.
    15.2 Pilot Fermenter.
    15.3 Larger Pilot Plants for Batchwise or Continuous Fermentation Tests.
    15.4 Analyses.

16. Tanks and Bioreactors
    
    16.1 Brick Tanks.
    16.2 Reinforced Concrete Tanks.
    16.3 Tanks of Normal Steel Sheet Metals with an Enamel Layer or Plastic Coating.
    16.4 Tanks of Stainless Steel.
    16.5 Ground Basin with Plastic Foil Lining.
    
    
17. Equipment for Tempering the Substrate.
    
    
18. Thermal Insulation.
    
    
19. Agitators.
    
    19.1 Mechanical Agitation.
    19.2 Circulation Pumps.
    19.3 Gas Injection into the Digestion Tower.
    19.4 Stirring Effect by Gas Formation.
    
    
20. Mixing of Biomass and Water.
    
    
21. Machines to Separate the Liquid from the Biomass.
    
    21.1 Belt-type Press.
    21.2 Filter Press.
    21.3 Decanters.
    
    
22. Pipes.
    
    22.1 Substrate Pipework.
    22.2 Gas Pipes.
    
    
23. Pumps.
    
    23.1 Submerged Centrifugal Pump, Submerged Motor Centrifugal Pump.
    23.2 Eccentric Screw Pump, Eccentric Rotor Pump.
    
    
24. Measurement, Control, and Automation Technology.
    
    24.1 Mechanisms for Monitoring and Regulation.
    24.2 Equipment to Guarantee Operating Safety.
    
    
25. Exhaust Air Cleaning.
    
    

26. Transportation and Storage of the Biomass.
    
    26.1 Transport and Means of Transport.
    26.2 Storage Silos.
    
    
27. Process Technology for Upstream Processing.
    
    27.1 Adjustment of the Water Content.
    27.2 Removal of Impurities/Harmful Substances (Figure 27.3).
    27.3 Comminution.
    27.4 Hygienization.
    27.5 Disintegration.
    
    
28. Feeding.
    
    28.1 Feeding with Substrate.
    28.2 Feeding with Additives.
    
    
29. Digested Residue.
    
    29.1 Pressing of the Fermentation Residue.
    29.2 Drying.
    
    
30. Wastewater.

31. Batchwise and Continuous Processes Without Separators.
    
    31.1 Floating Cup Reactor.
    31.2 Fixed-Dome Reactor.
    31.3 Deenbandhu Model.
    31.4 Plastic Bag Reactor and Plastic Silo Reactor.
    31.5 Cavern Plants.
    31.6 One-Stage Agricultural Biogas Plants.
    
    
32. Existing Installations from Different Suppliers.
    
    32.1 WABIO-Vaasa Process.
    32.2 DUT Process.
    32.3 Entec Process.
    32.4 Bigadan™ Process (Formerly Krüger Process).
    32.5 Valorga™ Process.
    
    
33. Operation of a Plant Without Separation Equipment.
    
    33.1 Start-up.
    33.2 Start-up of the Plant.
    33.3 Operation of the Plant.
    
    
34. Benefits of a Biogas Plant.
    
    
35. Typical Design Calculation for an Agricultural Biogas Plant.
    
    
36. Economics Calculations for Biogas Plants.
    
    36.1 Capital-Bound Costs Per Year in US$.
    36.2 Consumption-Bound Costs Per Year.
    36.3 Operation-Bound Costs Per Year.
    36.4 Other Costs Per Year.
    36.5 Total Costs.
    36.6 Income Per Year.
    36.7 Annual Revenue of the Biogas Plant.
    
    
37. Efficiency.
    
    

38. Installation with Substrate Dilution and Subsequent Water Separation.
    
    38.1 Process Engineering.
    38.2 Implemented Installations of Different Manufacturers.
    
    
39. Installation with Biomass Accumulation.
    
    39.1 Sewage Sludge Digestion Tower Installation.
    39.2 Sludge-Bed Reactor.
    39.3 Reactors with Immobilized Microorganisms.
    
    
40. Plants with Separation of Non-Hydrolyzable Biomass.
    
    40.1 Process Engineering and Equipment Construction.
    40.2 Efficiency.
    40.3 Plant Installations.
    
    
41. Percolation Process.
    
    41.1 Dry Fermentation Process in a Stack.
    41.2 AN/Biothane™ Process.
    41.3 Prethane™/Rudad™–Biopaq™ Process or ANM Process.
    41.4 Foil Hose Process.
    41.5 IMK Process.
    41.6 Dry Anaerobic Composting.
    41.7 Aerobic–Anaerobic–Aerobic Process (3A Process).
    41.8 Fermentation Channel Process.
    
    
42. Special Plant Installations.
    
    42.1 Combined Fermentation of Sewage Sludge and Biowaste.
    42.2 Biowaste Plants.
    42.3 Purification of Industrial Wastewater.

43. Biogasholder.
    
    43.1 Biogasholder Types.
    43.2 Gas Flares.
    
    
44. Gas Preparation.
    
    44.1 Removal of Hydrogen Sulfide.
    44.2 Removal of the Carbon Dioxide.
    44.3 Removal of Oxygen.
    44.4 Removal of Water.
    44.5 Removal of Ammonia.
    44.6 Removal of Siloxanes.
    
    
45. Quantities of Gas and Measurement of Gas Quality.
    
46. Liquefaction or Compression of the Biogas.
    
    46.1 Liquefaction.
    46.2 Compression.

47. Utilization of Gas Exclusively to Generate Heat.
    
48. Utilization of Gas to Generate Current and Heat.
    
    48.1 Supply of Current to the Public Power Network.
    48.2 Heat.
    48.3 Combined Heat and Power Generator (CHP).
    48.4 Lessons Learnt from Experience.
    48.5 Economy.
    
    
49. Biogas for Feeding into the Natural Gas Network.
    49.1 Biogas for Feeding into the Natural Gas Network in Switzerland.
    49.2 Biogas for Feeding into the Natural Gas Network in Sweden.
    49.3 Biogas for Feeding into the Natural Gas Network in Germany.
    
    
50. Biogas as Fuel for Vehicles.
    
    50.1 Requirements on Gas When Used as Fuel.
    50.2 Vehicles.
    50.3 Gasoline Station.

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